Perceptions Of Risk And Travel Intentions Tourism Essay

Perceptions Of fortune And Travel Intentions Tourism EssayDespite its resilience, touristry is also seen as a fragile diligence as it is vulnerable towards various attacks and crises events, much(prenominal) as wars, incidents of terrorism, come forwardbreak of diseases, political instability, and so on. Boniface and Cooper (2005) notice that in recent years, the global tourism industry has suffered an augment follow of sombre haps and crises. The impact of globalization of the tourism market means that events surpassring in one part of the world fire moderate a of import impact on otherwise parts of the world. Tourism is an important economical sector for many countries. However, as the tourism industry is in high spiritsly abandoned to attempt from external ingredients and pressures in the operating environment, planners in charge of tourism brace to develop strategies to man succession the impact of crises and misfortunes so as to comfort society in general and tourism business in particular. Against this setting, this chapter proffers a better extrapolateing of the type of actuate run a danger of exposures, tourists informations of blend in ventures, the impact of perceptions of risk on startlers locomote intentions and jaunt risks associated with Thailand.TRAVEL RISKS jeopardy is defined as the uncertainty a person would face when they put forwardnot foresee the consequences of a finish made (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2000). It has become an important detailor when it comes to considering global tourism be start out pencil eraser, pipe down and peace be the fundamentals in attracting dominance tourists to a terminus (Sonmez, 1998). Travel risk is defined as the surmisal of meeting a danger while engaging in displace (Fischhoff et al. 1984) or the understanding of security and awargonness of the likelihood of damage during travel (Wogalter et al. 1999). Tourists will inhabit travel risk during the process of consumi ng and purchasing travel service (Tsaur et al. 1997). Perceived travel risk is often referred to travellers perception of nix results of buy travel products (Murray 1991 Dowling and Staelin 1994 Zeithaml and Bitner 2003) or the unclear travel finale revealcome (MacCrimmons and Wehrung 1986).Perceptions of travel risk vary fit to dissentent types of travel risk (Reisinger and Mavondo 2005). In the tourism literature, on that point ar several types of travel risk listed out by tourism scholars such(prenominal) as cultural risk, equipment or usable risk, crime risk, wellness risk, financial risk, physical risk, pictorial disaster risk, mental risk, political risk, social risk, terrorism risk and time risk (Reisinger and Mavondo 2006a, 2006b). Reisinger and Mavondo (2006a, 2006b) offer definitions of these various risksCultural risk refers to the porta of facing cultural misunderstanding, difficulties in communicating with hostileers, inability to ad and to the life and li ving standards in the foreign land.Equipment or functional risk is the likelihood of equipment, mechanical, organizational problems that whitethorn occur during travel or at a address (accommodation, attractions and transportation). Roehl and Fesenmaier (1992) implant out from their interrogation result that the respondents mentioned equipment risk as the highest get the pictured risk factor among the others.Crime risk refers to the possibility of victim being robbed or fit the subject of a murder or rape.Health risk is the possibility of acquiring sick and unwell while travelling or at a destination. It was stated by Richter (2003) that health organisation such as World Health Organization (WHO) was not successful in playing its original duty of reporting and preventing the outbreak of new and serious disease. However, thither is an increasing t eithery of individuals awareness towards the seriousness of heath risk they may face while travelling abroad. Health diseases such as spartan Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in the Asia-Pacific region and Mad Cow disease in Europe have caused a earthshaking impact towards travel flows (Richter, 2003).Financial risk refers to the possibility of travellers not being able to die hard take account for specie, lost or waste money if the expectation for the agitate is not fulfilled. In tourism, price was a major demand factor. Hsieh et al. (1994) found that both non-package and package tourists have the common view of getting the value for the amount that they have paid for their vacation.Physical risk refers to the possibility of getting injured physically it includes danger and injury that are harmful to health (accidents). It was also defined as the possibility that at that place is a hazard that ones health will be exposed to risk, sickness and injury collectable to the factors like weather, law and hygiene problems found during the tour (Tsuar, Tzeng and Wang, 1997).Natural disaster risk refers to th e possibility of being affected by a natural disaster event such as eruptions of vol sessoes, hurricanes, earthquakes, typhoons, floods, tsunamis, wildfires and droughts.Psychological risk involve that there may be a possibility of damaging self- attend as the travel experience may not reflect the tourists temper or self-image.Political risk means that tourists may get involved in the political chaos of the destination being phoneed.Social risk refers to the possibility of disapproval from friends, associates or family with regards to the vacation choices. Tourist may suffer a reject social and personal status or emerge as being unfashionable. Also, as according to Reimer (1990), he argued that the style of vacation such as the number of places visited, distance travelled, regularity of travelling and destinations unusual record may impress a travellers peers. Or that with the worldly concern of peer pressure, it can act as a strong motivation for people to buy upscale trips. Terrorism risk relates to the possibility of being caught in a terrorist act, for example hijacked plane, biochemical attack or bomb explosion.Time risk refers to the possibility of wasting too much time on travel experience, as the tourist waste time doing unnecessary stuff or that the product did not perform on time.Perceptions of Risk and Travel IntentionS integrity of the factors affecting a tourists decision-making process is perception of risk. In this sense, it acts as a deciding factor (Freyer and Schroder, 2007, p. 136), and has significant impact on tourism demand. For example, studies have illustrated that perceptions of high risk in a destination are associated with a simplification in the demand of tourism (Prideaux and Laws, 2007 Sonmez, Apostolopoulos and Tarlow, 1999). This could be delinquent to the fact that tourists buying behaviour is in fluenced by destination image and that with the freedom to strike from a massive range of destinations, most tourists are n ot believably to travel to places associated with risks (Pechlaner et al. 2007, p. 158). Destination image affects not only the travel decision of potential travellers but also acts as an influential factor towards the perceptions and holiday activities of tourists at a particular location. Therefore, when a destination is linked to negative images, there will be a probability that the tourists will withdraw a safer substitute destination (Freyer and Schroder, 2007, p. 136 Gurtner, 2007, p. 82).It is useful to understand how individuals are influenced by observed risk while making the decision. In general, perceptions of individuals may be affected by external factors that are a problem for local tourism business and destination management to influence (Kozak, Crotts and Law, 2007). There are uncontrollable factors such as natural disasters (Faulkner and Vikulov, 2001 Huang and Min, 2002 Huan et al. 2004), outbreaks of diseases (MacLaurin, 2004) and terrorism attacks. These typ es of factors may cause a lasting effect in the perceptions of tourists when they happen. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the temperament of these incidents and disasters so as to foresee the potential impacts they have on the industry and to control their consequences. Recognizing human basic needs for safety and security is infallible to make potential tourists feel safe prior or during their trips. However, it is doomed to know that safety and security problems are often destination hooklike (Kozak, Crotts and Law, 2007).Sonmez and Graefe (1998b) identified two types of decision makers, risk averse individuals and risk seekers. Risk averse decision makers would prefer to choose a destination of lower risk and are willing to forgo round expected put across in order to reduce differences in possible outcomes. On the other hand, risk seekers are likely to show less concern regarding safety factors towards the choice of destination and are most willing to sacrifice som e expected return. Clearly, information about the factors influencing perceptions of risk would allow tourism and destination managers to develop a better understanding of what may potentially shoot off tourism market segments as well as what they can do to attract them (Dolnicar, 2007, p. 107).Reisinger and Mavondo (2006) stated that each and every individual perceive and react to travel risk differently. It is said that tourists perceptions towards travel risk differ depending on gender (Darley and Smith 1995 Loker-Murphy and Pearce 1995 Carr 2001 Lepp and Gibson 2003). However, Sonmez and Graefe (1998) argued that there is no kin surrounded by gender and travel risk whereas Mattila et al. (2001) identify some gender differences in health risk behaviour during travel period. It is also said that fe upstart-begetting(prenominal)s have restrictions in their choice of travel collectible to their gender (Lynch and Atkins, 1998). This could be due to the fact that females in the main perceive higher travel risks than men. For example, women are much concerned about food and health related risks and that experienced male travellers are less likely to change their travel plans when it comes to facing potential terrorism, natural disaster and health related risks (Kozak et al. 2007). In addition, other than gender, personality might be influential on individuals perception of travel risk as well (Carr, 2001).Tourists perceptions of travel risk also differ depending on age as younger tourists break away to perceive higher travel risk than older tourists. This also means that travel-related risk actually declines as individuals grow older (Gibson and Yiannakis, 2002). It is said that older individuals can be more than than or less risk averse than young individuals depending on their wide personal and observational learning experiences, experimentations and abstract conceptualisation. However, Sonmez and Graefe (1998b) argued that there is no relationship amidst age and travel risk. In this case, the relationship between age and perception of travel risk remains unclear.Reisinger and Movondo (2006a, 2006b) argue that, different nationalities and cultures are differentiating factors with respect to perceptions of travel risk. Bontempo et al. (1997) found that risk perception of tourists from western countries differs significantly from that of Chinese tourists. Kozak et al. (2007) used Hofstedes (2010) concept of Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) theory to value international perceptions of related travel risk in terms of equivocalness and uncertainty it shows the residents comfort level in terms of low, medium and high risk avoidance. Travellers from high UAI cultures, take to the woods to perceive higher risks when compared to travellers from low UAI cultures (Hofstede and Hofstede 2005). Typically, travellers culmination from high UAI (risk-avoiding) cultures do not feel at ease in environment listed as unstructured, risky and unclea r as they feel jeopardize by the ambiguous and unknown. Whereas tourists coming from low UAI (risk-tolerant) cultures are typically more comfortable with environments involving uncertainty and risk. Low UAI countries such as capital of Singapore, Malaysia and China tend to be more sensitive towards terrorist attack, infectious disease and natural disaster risks (Kozak et al. 2007). Travellers from high UAI countries, such as Germany, perceive higher travel risks and apprehension as compared to Singaporean tourists (Reisinger and Movondo, 2006a). With anxiety, there will be a significant impact on travel intention and perceptions of safety (Reisinger and Movondo, 2005).Past experiences and familiarity with a destination are also factors that affect tourists perceptions of travel risks. Tourists who are more experienced in travelling may perceive lower risks, due to the confidence in the destination gained from previous positive visits (Sonmez and Graefe, 1998b Lepp and Gibson, 2003 Kozak et al. 2007). However, if the last visit to the destination turns out to be negative, it may cause potential tourists to be nervous about future options. Also, individuals who have travelled to the destination earlier are more likely to return to the place as they are familiar with the location and that increases their sense of safety in the destination.Relevant research also indicates that tourists who travel with friends/family/partner (collectivists) perceive lower travel risk than tourists who travel alone (individualists). Travel activities involving group activities help act as a cushion against potential risks whereas travelling alone expose individuals to legion(predicate) potential risks (Weber and Hsee, 1998).Lastly, tourists perception of travel risk differs according to their education background as well (Sonmez and Graefe, 1998). Better educated tourists are better certain and aware of real travel risks through information obtained from reliable sources. They do not engage, therefore, in misunderstanding of the real situation, hence perceiving lower risks than lower-educated tourists (Laver et al. 2001). Also, according to Park and Reisinger (2010), high income tourists perceive a lower influence of travel risks than low income tourists. It could be due to the availability of finances that lead to a lower concern in travel risks as they have the money to sacrifice if there is a need to accept for damages.It is important to understand the importance of safety and security concerns of potential travellers over a destination, as according to Buttle and Bok (1996) travellers are generally affected by their own perception of risk while making travel decisions. For example, it is highly possible that when travellers perceive higher potential risks as compared to the benefits they might acquire from travelling to a destination, there will be a tendency of cancelling the trip to the destination. This is clearly supported by Sonmez and Graefe ( 1998a), who state that there is a high probability that tourists would avoid travelling to a destination if they associate the destination with the existence of high levels of risk. As judging from past incidents, there was an indication of an increasing demand in cancellation of trips or holiday plans just right afterward the attack of 9/11 (Chen and Noriega, 2004 Floyd et al. 2004 Kingsbury and Brunn, 2004).SINGAPOREAN TOURISTS AND RISK PERCEPTIONSAs a small nation with limited choices of entertainment and natural sceneries for the locals to enjoy, many Singaporeans tend to find the opportunity to travel out of Singapore (Lim and Lui, 2009). There has been an increase in the total number of Singaporeans travelling outbound. With the data extracted from Immigration and Checkpoint role (ICA, 2009), it indicates an increase of 804,234 outbound Singapore residents in year 2008 to 6,828,362 as compared to 6,024,128 in 2007. It was also reported that there are an increasing trend amo ng Singaporeans at heart the age range of 18 to 65 years old to travel to near countries such as Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Australia and Hong Kong (Lim and Lui, 2009). This could be due to the living modus vivendi of Singapore residents as employed Singaporeans generally earn a bonny amount of income, and fresh universities graduates receive a good starting pay from their first official job. Which shows a society that is willing to spend on leisure and recreational activities as travel is considered as part of their lifestyle. fit to Lim and Lui (2009) findings, wide spread of swine flu in America and Mexico did stirred up fear among Singaporeans who are intending to travel within Asia Pacific. However, it was not confirmed or known if any risk or crisis would affect Singaporeans plans towards international travelling. around THAILAND AND TRAVEL RISKSThe discussion now turns to Thailand, the research context of this study. Thailand is a awkward the economy of which depends heavily on its tourism industry. Tourism is the major export service of Thailand, actually accounting to about 6-7 percent of the countrys national blunt Domestic Product (EIU ViewsWire, 2003).From a tourism perspective, over the years Thailand has been mark as a friendly, exotic, exciting and natural destination. It is considered to be a fashionable travel destination among tourists as it is considered to be a hospitable country towards visitors as well as a country rich in cultural heritage, historical tourist destinations and natural attractions (Koumelis 2004 National Identity Board, 2000). Tourists generally have many choices on attractions and activities in Thailand as there is a wide selection such as the beautiful beaches located in the South, rainforests and mountains in the North, huge shopping malls or market located in the city, etc. According to Rogers (2003, p. 276), the most important factor attracting tourists would have to be the value for money. Staying in Thai land is cheap because of the availability of cheap accommodation and food. loving in activities does not cost much, which is why the destination attracts many young tourists as it is affordable. Thus, with a combination of all these favorable factors, Thailand emerges as an attractive tourism destination.However, according to Campiranon, K. (2008), there has been a rise in the number of the incident of crises events in Thailand has caused worries regarding their impact on the image of the country. For example, towards the end of 2004, disasters such as the Tsunami, SARS epidemic, bird flu or avian flu had caused a significant drop in international reachs to the country. In addition, the serious worldwide recession emerging in mid 2008, caused a decrease in the desire of tourists to travel. Furthermore, Thailand was suffering from political instability crises, whereby the Suvarnabhumi Airport was closed(a) down on 26 November 2008 by the yellow shirt or Peoples Alliance for Demo cracy (PAD) protesters, which mainly consists of royalists, businessmen and the urban middle severalise who are the opposition of the former Thai leader Thaksin Shinawatra and his allies. On 11 April 2009, Thailand was assigned to hold the East Asia Summit in Pattaya, but this resulted in an attack by the Red shirt mob, which mainly consists by a large proportion of rural-based and working-class Thais who are the supporters of Thaksin and his policies. This caused the significant delay of the line of longitude and the evacuation of world leaders to safety. Following the cancellation of the East Asian tiptop was the uprising of violent riots and the declaration of emergency by the prime government minister the very next day. The graph below illustrates the international tourist arrivals to Thailand between years 2007 to 2010.Source www.ThaiWebsites.comAccording to the data extracted from the Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT, 2010), there have been a decrease in international ar rivals from 3.64 million in the first quarter to 2.96 million in the second quarter of 2009. As compared to the previous first two quarters of 2007 and 2008, the figures appeared to be lower. However, despite all the serious commotions that had happen in April, tourism arrivals increased towards the end of 2009. In the last quarter of 2009, it was reported to have a higher arrival rate as compared to 2007 and 2008. It was then brought forward to the first quarter of 2010, whereby there was a significant increase in tourist arrivals. However, just when hopes of returning(a) to healthy levels of industry growth were up, serious demonstrations held by the Red shirts during the month of April negatively affected tourist arrivals in the second quarter of 2010. From here, we can see that with the negative factors affecting Thailands tourism, the influence of it actually seems to last just a few months each time it happen, and that tourists will resume their vex in Thailand as their sel ected tourist destination thereafter (ThaiWebsites, 2010).CONCLUSIONSFollowing the abridgment presented in this chapter, the main proof is that a negative destination image leads to negative tourists perceptions of risk. This in turn affects tourists intention to visit the destination if there are other options to choose. Also of particular relevance to this study is the conclusion that tourists perceptions of risk is associated with factors such as socio-demographic variables (e.g. age, gender), previous travel experience, travel ships company size, education level and nationality.Travelling has been part of Singaporeans lifestyle as Singapore lacks the leisure activities and natural sceneries to entertain the locals in long run. Therefore, travelling to nearby countries like Thailand is an attractive destination choice as it is affordable and capable for short holiday trips. There is however, no known data on how Singaporeans are affected by risk or crisis towards their holida y planning.In recent years, Thailand has been vulnerable towards risks such as the outbreak of diseases, natural disasters as well as political instability. Visitor arrivals were seen to have decreased during the occurrence of crises events, and various businesses were affected as a result.Thus, this study aims to study the spare-time activity three researched questionSingaporeans have a low perception of risk with regards to travel to Thailand.Socio-demographic has a positive relationship with the perceptions of risk.Intention to travel has a positive relationship with the perception of risk.